late pre-Christian and early Christian centuries,
distinguished by the conviction that matter is evil and that emancipation comes through gnosis (knowledge).
Gnosticism was primarily defined in a Christian context. Some scholars have claimed that gnosticism pre-dated Christianity. Such
discussions have included pre-Christian religious
beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be
common to early Christianity, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, Zoroastrianism (especially Zurvanism), and Neoplatonism. The discussion of gnosticism changed radically with
the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and led to revision of older assumptions. Common characteristics A common characteristic of some of these groups
was the teaching that the realisation of Gnosis (esoteric or intuitive knowledge) is the way to salvation of the soul from the material world. They saw the material world as created through an
intermediary being (demiurge) rather than directly by God. In most of the systems, this demiurge was seen as imperfect, in others even as evil. Different
gnostic schools sometimes identified the demiurge
as Adam Kadmon, Ahriman, El, Saklas, Samael, Satan, Yaldabaoth, or Yahweh. Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth. Others adamantly deny that the supreme being came in the
flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who
attained divinity through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same.[citation needed] Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist. Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures. The Christian groups first called "gnostic" a branch
of Christianity, however Joseph Jacobs and Ludwig Blau (Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911) note that much of the terminology employed is Jewish and
note that this "proves at least that the principal
elements of gnosticism were derived from Jewish
speculation, while it does not preclude the
possibility of new wine having been poured into old bottles."
The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths,and the Persian Empire; it continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East
before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the remaining number
of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a
few Mandaean communities still exist. Gnostic and
pseudo-gnostic ideas became influential in some
of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries in
Europe and North America, including some that
explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even
continuations of earlier gnostic groups. The term "Gnosticism" Irenaeus, who first used "gnostic" to describe heresies The English term "Gnosticism" derives from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos ("learned", "intellectual", Greek γνωστικός) by St. Irenaeus (c.185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis "the heresy called Learned (gnostic)".
This occurs in the context of Irenaeus' work On the Detection and Overthrow of Knowledge Falsely So Called, (Greek: elenchos kai anatrope tes pseudonymou gnoseos genitive case, ἔλεγχος καὶ ἀνατροπὴ τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως) where the term "knowledge falsely so- called" (nominative case pseudonymos gnosis) covers various groups, not just Valentinus, and is a quotation of the apostle Paul's warning against "knowledge falsely so-called" in 1 Timothy 6:20. The Greek adjective gnostikos, "learned" The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is "learned" or "intellectual", such as used in the comparison of "practical" (praktikos) and "intellectual" (gnostikos) in Plato's dialogue between Young Socrates and the Foreigner in his The Statesman (258e). Plato's use of "learned" is fairly typical of Classical texts.[12] By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be
associated with Greco-Roman mystery cults and
ceremonies, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria in Book 7 of his Stromateis speaks of the "learned" (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus.
Some scholars, for example A. Rousseau and L.
Doutreleau, translators of the French edition (1974),consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean "intellectual", as in 1.25.6, 1.11.3, 1.11.5, whereas his mention of "the
intellectual sect" (Adv. haer. 1.11.1) is a specific
designation. Irenaeus' comparative adjective gnostikeron "more learned", evidently cannot mean "more Gnostic" as a name. Of those groups that Irenaeus identifies as "intellectual" (gnostikos), only one, the followers of Marcellina use the term gnostikos of themselves. Later Hippolytus uses "learned" (gnostikos) of Cerinthus and the Ebionites, and Epiphanius applied "learned" (gnostikos) to specific groups. The English noun "Gnosticism" The term "Gnosticism" does not appear in ancient sources,and was first coined by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term "Gnosticisme" to describe the heresy in Thyatira. Nature and structure of
Gnosticism:
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1. The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity, source — this figure is known under a
variety of names, including "Pleroma" (fullness, totality) and "Bythos" (depth, profundity);
2. The introduction by emanation of further divine beings known as Aeons, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God
from which they proceeded; the progressive
emanations are often conceived metaphorically as
a gradual and progressive distancing from the
ultimate source, which brings about an instability
in the fabric of the divine nature;
3. The introduction of a distinct creator god or demiurge, which is an illusion and a later emanation from the single monad or source. This second god is a lesser and inferior or false god.
This creator god is commonly referred to as the demiourgós (a technical term literally denoting a public worker the Latinized form of Greek dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, hence "ergon or energy", "public god or skilled worker" "false god" or "god of the masses"), used in the Platonist tradition. The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. In the former, the demiourgós is a central figure, a benevolent creator of the universe who works to
make the universe as benevolent as the
limitations of matter will allow; in the latter, the
description of the leontomorphic "desire" in Socrates' model of the psyche bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as
being in the shape of the lion; the relevant passage of The Republic was found within a major gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi,wherein a text existed describing the demiurge as a "lion-faced serpent". Elsewhere, this figure is called "Ialdabaoth", "Samael" (Aramaic: sæmʻa-ʼel, "blind god") or "Saklas" (Syriac: sækla, "the foolish one"), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and
sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case
he is correspondingly malevolent.
The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named "Archons", who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it.
The world is typically an inferior simulacrum of a higher-level reality or consciousness. The inferiority may be compared
to the technical inferiority of a painting, sculpture, or other handicraft to the thing(s) of which those crafts are supposed to be a representation. In certain other cases it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence, negatively.
Which then becomes more extreme when
materiality, and the human body, is perceived as
evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its
inhabitants; The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in
which a divine element "falls" into the material
realm and lodges itself within certain human
beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine
realm through a process of awakening (leading
towards salvation). The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine
nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to
elevate individual redemption to the level of a
cosmically significant event. The model limits itself to describing characteristics
of the Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of
the Persian gnostic school — Manicheanism and Mandaeanism — are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the
typical usage of "Gnosticism" is to refer to the
Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while "Manichean"
describes the movements of the Persia school. This conception of Gnosticism has in recent times
come to be challenged (see below). Despite this, the understanding presented above remains the most
common and is useful in aiding meaningful
discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism. Above all, the central idea of gnōsis, a knowledge superior to and independent of faith
made it welcome to many who were half-converted
from paganism to Christianity. The Valentinians, for example, considered pistis (Greek: "faith") as consisting of accepting a body of teaching as true,
being principally intellectual or emotional in character. The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse, they seem to have originated in Alexandria and coexisted with the early Christians until the 4th
century AD and due to there being no fixed church
authority, syncretism with pre-existing belief systems as well as new religions were often
embraced. According to Clement of Alexandria, "... In the times of the Emperor Hadrian appeared those who devised heresies, and they continued until the age of the elder Antoninus."
The relationship between Gnosticism and
Orthodox Christianity during the late 1st and the
whole of the 2nd century is vital in helping us to
further understand the main doctrines of
Gnosticism; due in part to the fact that, prior to the
discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library, much of what we know today about gnosticism has only
been preserved in the summaries and assessments
of early church fathers. Irenaeus declares in his treatise "Against Heresies" that Gnostic movements subjected all morality to the caprice of
the individual, and made any fixed rule of faith
impossible. The whim of the individual being a
subject that is of concern when discussing heresy
and orthodoxy in relation to spiritual mysticism, such as the mysticism of Henry Corbin, Thelema, and even in fiction such as The Theologians by Jorge Luis Borges in Labyrinths. According to Irenaeus, a certain sect known as the "Cainites" professed to impart a knowledge "greater and more sublime" than the
ordinary doctrine of Christians, and believed that
Cain derived his power from the superior Godhead. Although a Christian who valued gnosis, Clement of Alexandria, a 2nd century church father and the first notable member of the
Church of Alexandria, raised a criticism against the
followers of Basilides and Valentinus in his Stromata: in his view it annulled the efficacy of baptism, in that it held no value faith, the gift conferred in that sacrament. Dualism and monism Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as
being "dualistic" in nature, meaning that they have
the view that the world consists of or is explicable
as two fundamental entities. Hans Jonas writes: "The cardinal feature of gnostic thought is the
radical dualism that governs the relation of God and world, and correspondingly that of man and world." Within this definition, they run the gamut from the "radical dualist" systems of
Manicheanism to the "mitigated dualism" of classic
gnostic movements; Valentinian developments
arguably approach a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner. Radical Dualism — or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism
conceives of two previously coexistent realms of
light and darkness which become embroiled in
conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter.
Subsequently, certain elements of the light
became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process
of extraction of these individual elements, at the
end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits, this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism,in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura
Mazda triumphant.
The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the
progressive emanations of Supreme Being of
Light, with each emanation bringing about a
progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, a demiurge who had a hand
in creating and henceforward rules the material
realm.
Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically
to be found in Iranian groups; for instance, see
"The Hymn of the Pearl") commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to
some sort of malevolent intoxication brought
about by the powers of darkness to keep
elements of the light trapped inside it, or literally
to keep them "in the dark", or ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction.
Mitigated Dualism — where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other.
Such classical Gnostic movements as the
Sethians conceived of the material world as being
created by a lesser divinity than the true God that
was the object of their devotion. The spiritual
world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the
true God, and the true home of certain
enlightened members of humanity; thus, these
systems were expressive of a feeling of acute
alienation within the world, and their resultant aim
was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.
Qualified Monism — where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or
semi-divine. Elements of Valentinian versions of
Gnostic myth suggest to some that its
understanding of the universe may have been
monistic rather than a dualistic one. Elaine Pagels
states that "Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism";while, according to Schoedel "a standard element in the
interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms
of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic". In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his
creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any
moral failing on his part, but due to his
imperfection by contrast to the superior entities of which he is unaware. As such, Valentinians already have less cause to treat physical reality
with contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic
The Valentinian tradition conceives of materiality,
rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an error of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the act of material creation.
Major Gnostic movements and
their texts As noted above, schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as
being a member of two broad categories. These are
the "Eastern"/"Persian" school, and a "Syrian-
Egyptic" school. The former possesses more
demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a
strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a
typically more Monist view. Notable exceptions
include relatively modern movements which seem
to include elements of both categories, namely: the
Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians which are
included in their own section. Persian Gnosticism The Persian Schools, which appeared in the
western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is
believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic
thought forms. These movements are considered
by most to be religions in their own right, and are
not emanations from Christianity or Judaism. Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. The name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi, which roughly means "Knowledge of Life." Although the
exact chronological origins of this movement are
not known, John the Baptist eventually would
come to be a key figure in the religion, as an
emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs.
As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity, Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and
practices likewise have little overlap with the
religions that manifested from those religious
figures and the two should not be confused.
Significant amounts of original Mandaean
Scripture, written in Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known
as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the
2nd century CE. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John
the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia). Manichaeism which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now extinct,
was founded by the Prophet Mani (216-276 CE). The original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic, in a unique Manichaean script. Although most of the literature/scripture of the
Manichaeans was believed lost, the discovery of
an original series of documents have helped to
shed new light on the subject. Now housed in Cologne Germany, a Manichaean religious work written in Greek, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, contains mainly biographical information on the prophet and details on his
claims and teachings. Before the discovery of
these authentic Manichaean texts, scholars had to
rely on anti-Manichaean polemical works, such as the Christian anti-Manichaean Acta Archelai (also written in Greek), which has Mani saying, for
example, "The true God has nothing to do with
the material world or cosmos", and, "It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the Christians, the
Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same
error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them."
Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism:
The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its
outlook from Platonist influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a
primal monadic source, finally resulting in the
creation of the material universe. As a result, there
is a tendency in these schools to view evil in terms
of matter which is markedly inferior to goodness,
evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an
equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be
said to use the terms "evil" and "good" as being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between
such realities and confused in its orientation, with
"evil" indicating the extremes of distance from the
principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements
included source material related to Christianity,
with some identifying themselves as specifically
Christian (albeit quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms). Syrian-Egyptic scripture Most of the literature from this category is known/
confirmed to us in the modern age through the
Library discovered at
Nag Hammadi. Sethian works are named after the third son of Adam and Eve, believed to be a possessor and
disseminator of gnosis. These typically include: The Apocryphon of John The Apocalypse of Adam The Reality of the Rulers, Also known as The Hypostasis of the Archons The Thunder, Perfect Mind The Three-fold First Thought (Trimorphic Protennoia) The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also known as the (Coptic) Gospel of the Egyptians) Zostrianos Allogenes The Three Steles of Seth The Gospel of Judas Marsanes The Coptic Apocalypse of Paul The Thought of Norea The Second Treatise of the Great Seth Thomasine works are so-named after the School of St. Thomas the Apostle. The texts commonly attributed to this school are: The Hymn of the Pearl, or, the Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians The Gospel of Thomas The Acts of Thomas The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect The Psalms of Thomas Valentinian works are named in reference to the Bishop and teacher Valentinius, also spelled Valentinus. c. 153 AD/CE, Valentinius developed a
complex Cosmology outside of the Sethian
tradition. At one point he was close to being
appointed the Bishop of Rome of what is now the Roman Catholic Church. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces
directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk: The Divine Word Present in the Infant (Fragment A) * On the Three Natures
(Fragment B) * Adam's Faculty of Speech (Fragment C) * To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System (Fragment D) * Annihilation of the Realm of Death
(Fragment F) * On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom (Fragment G) * Epistle on Attachments (Fragment H) * Summer Harvest* The Gospel of Truth* Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth Prayer of the Apostle Paul Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora Treatise on the Resurrection (Epistle to Rheginus) Gospel of Philip Basilidian works are named for the founder of their school, Basilides (132–? CE/AD). These works are mainly known to us through the
criticisms of one of his opponents, Irenaeus in his work Adversus Haereses. The other pieces are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria: The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A) The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B) Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue
(Fragment C) The State of Virtue (Fragment D) The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E) Reincarnation (Fragment F) Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G) Forgivable Sins (Fragment H) The Gospel of Judas is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. National Geographic has published an English translation of it, bringing it
into mainstream awareness. It portrays Judas Iscariot as the "thirteenth spirit (daemon)", who "exceeded" the evil sacrifices the disciples
offered to Saklas by sacrificing the "man who clothed me (Jesus)". Its reference to Barbelo and inclusion of material similar to the
Apocryphon of John and other such texts,
connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian
Gnosticism. Later Gnosticism and Gnostic-
influenced groups Other schools and related movements; these are presented in chronological order: The circular, harmonic cross was an emblem used most notably by the Cathars,a medieval group that related to Gnosticism. Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, became in
early Christianity the archetypal false teacher.
The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and
others of a connection between schools in their
time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as
legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. Justin Martyr identifies a Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil. Again Justin identifies Marcion of Sinope as a false teacher, but such familiar ideas as they
presented were as-yet unformed; they might
thus be described as pseudo- or proto- Gnostics.[citation needed] Both developed a sizable following. Marcion is popularly labeled a
gnostic, however most scholars do not consider
him a gnostic at all, for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Marcion clearly states: "In Marcion's own view, therefore,
the founding of his church — to which he was
first driven by opposition — amounts to a
reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to
be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows
that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the
Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic — Depending of course on one's
definition of 'Gnostic'." Cerinthus (c. 100 AD), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a
Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a
heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus,
and he cited the demiurge as creating the
material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus
taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the
Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret
teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars
believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus. The Ophites, so-named by Hippolytus of Rome, because, Hippolytus claims, they
worshiped the serpent of Genesis as the bestower of knowledge. The Cainites are again so-named since Hippolytus of Rome claims that they worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group. Hippolytus claims that
they believed that indulgence in sin was the key
to salvation because since the body is evil, one
must defile it through immoral activity (libertinism)*.
The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the
usual Biblical sense of people descended from
Cain. The Carpocratians, a libertine sect following only the Gospel according to the Hebrews The Borborites, a libertine Gnostic sect, said to be descended from the Nicolaitans Later groups accused by their contemporaries of being in line with the "gnostics" of Irenaeus. Various later groups were also associated with earlier heretics by their
contemporaries: The Paulicans, an Adoptionist group of which little is known first-hand, were accused
by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian. They flourished between 650 and 872 in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire The Bogomils, the synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church reform movement, which emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though
whether or not the Cathari possessed direct
historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is
disputed. If their critics are reliable the basic
conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be
found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force. For the relationship between these medieval
heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see historical discussion above. Important terms and concepts Main article: List of gnostic terms Please note that the following are only summaries
of various Gnostic interpretations that exist. The
roles of familiar beings such as Jesus Christ, Sophia, and the Demiurge usually share the same general themes between systems but may have
somewhat different functions or identities ascribed
to them.
Æon: Aeon (Gnosticism) In many Gnostic systems, the æons are the various emanations of the superior God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (Greek: "The Complete Æon"),Bythos (Greek: Βυθος, 'Depth' or 'profundity'), Proarkhe (Greek: προαρχη, "Before the Beginning'), E Arkhe (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, 'The Beginning'), Ennoia (Greek: "Thought") of the Light or Sige (Greek: Σιγη, "Silence"). From this first being, also an æon, a series of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo,from which successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in male- female pairings called syzygies;the numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty. The aeons as a totality constitute the pleroma, the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma
are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world. Two of the most commonly paired æons were Jesus and Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Jesus as her "consort" in A Valentinian Exposition. Sophia, emanating without her partner, resulting in the production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder"),who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts. This creature is concealed outside the Pleroma;in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a
host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The
demiurge is responsible for the creation of
mankind, by create he traps elements of the Pleroma stolen from Sophia in human bodies.
In response, the Godhead emanates two savior æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be
able to teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the Pleroma.
Archon: In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term Archon to refer to several servants of the Demiurge. In this context they may be seen as having the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament. According to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that follow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Horaios. Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion.
Abraxas/Abrasax: Abraxas Engraving from an Abraxas stone. The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I.24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of
the term "Archon", which may simply mean "ruler"
in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for
Basilideans is not clear. The word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique gemstones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic groups. In popular culture, Abraxas is
sometimes considered the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and Demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the monotheistic God, singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not omni-benevolent. (See Hesse's Demian, and Jung's Seven Sermons
to the Dead.) Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in
recent centuries has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of Satan/Lucifer. The word abracadabra may be related to Abraxas. The above information relates to interpretations of
ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy
hunters which are not always clear. Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag
Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abraxas as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual
Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In
several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the
luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and
it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who
encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and
Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort
that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth,
including Abrasax, Sophia, and others, pertains to
this outer border of the Divine Fullness that
encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the
world of materiality. Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also
appear in the Greek Magical Papyri. There are similarities and differences between such figures in
reports about Basiledes' teaching, in the larger
magical traditions of the Graeco-Roman world, in
the classic ancient Gnostic texts such as the
Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical and
esoteric writings.
The Swiss Psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic treatise in 1916 called The Seven Sermons
to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher
than the Christian God and Devil, that combines all
opposites into one Being. Demiurge:
Demiurge A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic Zervan Akarana; The term Demiurge derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός (literally "public or skilled worker"), and refers to an
entity responsible for the creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity. The term dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of
Gnosticism — such judgements usually
correspond to each group's judgement of the
status of materiality as being inherently evil, or else
merely flawed and as good as its passive
constituent matter will allow. As Plato does, Gnosticism presents a distinction between a supranatural, unknowable reality and the
sensible materiality of which the demiurge is
creator. However, in contrast to Plato, several
systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge
as antagonistic to the Supreme God: his act of
creation either in unconscious and fundamentally flawed imitation of the divine model, or else formed
with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the Apocryphon of John (several versions of which are found in the Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the name "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as God: "Now the archon who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas, and the third is Samael. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come." "Samael", in the Judeo-Christian tradition, refers to the evil angel of death, and corresponds to the Christian demon of that name, one second only to Satan[citation needed]. Literally, it can mean "blind god" or "god of the blind" in Aramaic (Syriac sæmʻa-ʼel); another alternative title is "Saklas", Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac sækla "the foolish one"). Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge's mother and a
partial aspect of the divine Pleroma or "Fullness", desired to create something apart from the divine
totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In
this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth
to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of
her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a
throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus
concluded that only he himself existed, being
ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were
his birthplace. The Gnostic myths describing these events are full
of intricate nuances portraying the declination of
aspects of the divine into human form; this process
occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who,
having stolen a portion of power from his mother,
sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus
Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the
material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped
within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic
movements was typically the awakening of this
spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its
primal source.
Gnosis:
The word "Gnosticism" is a modern construction,
though based on an antiquated linguistic
expression: it comes from the Greek word meaning "knowledge", gnosis (γνῶσις). However, gnosis itself refers to a very specialised form of
knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning
of the original Greek term and its usage in Platonist philosophy. Unlike modern English, ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several
different forms of knowing. These different forms
may be described in English as being propositional knowledge, indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know of Sirmainlyhopkins Thedevilzmindsky!" or "I know such and such a place is somewhere..?"), and empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or acquaintance (such as "I know Sirmainlyhopkins Thedevilzmindsky personally" or "I know such&such a place having been there or visited").
Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to be
"Gnostic" should be understood as being reliant
not on knowledge in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or esoteric experiences of direct participation with the divine.
Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient
cause of salvation is this "knowledge of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. This is
commonly identified with a process of inward
"knowing" or self-exploration, comparable to that
encouraged by Plotinus (c. 205–270 AD). This is what helps separate Gnosticism from proto-
orthodox views, where the orthodox views are considered to be superficial. The inadequate take then requires a correct form of interpretation.
With "gnosis" comes a fuller insight that is
considered to be more spiritual. Greater recognition
of the deeper spiritual meanings of doctrines,
scriptures, and rituals are obtained with this
insight. However, as may be seen, the term "gnostic" also had precedent usage in several
ancient philosophical traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle
implications of its appellation to a set of ancient
religious groups. Monad (apophatic theology) Main article: Monad (Gnosticism) In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos (The Perfect Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and E Arkhe (The Beginning, η αρχη). God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanations of God are
called æons. Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons). According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. This was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus. This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via Numenius as well. This Monad is the spiritual source of everything which emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter. The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon ("Secret book") of
John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that
there is one such god who is identified also as
creator of heaven and earth. In describing the
nature of a creator god associated with Biblical
texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define
God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine
taken to their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and truly benevolent. The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God
is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable;
commonly, "he" is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, "all-
containing". In the Apocryphon of John, this god is
good in that it bestows goodness. After the
apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in
action are used to describe the effect of such a
god. An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is
found throughout gnosticism, Vedanta, and
Platonic and Aristotelian theology as well. It is also
found in some Judaic sources. Pleroma Main article: Pleroma Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. The term means fullness, and is used in Christian theological contexts: both
in Gnosticism generally, and in Colossians 2.9.
Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by
evil archons, one of whom is the demiurge, the deity of the Old Testament who holds the human spirit captive. The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a
region of light "above" (the term is not to be
understood spatially) our world, occupied by
spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma,
with whose aid humanity can recover the lost
knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The
term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology. Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language
and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this
general form since the word appears under the
book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted
in the gnostic sense.
Sophia: Sophia (wisdom)
In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for "wisdom") refers to the final and lowest
emanation of God. In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth,
Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or
negative depiction of materiality thus resides a
great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's
actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90. Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively "lesser" beings in sequence. The lowest of these
pairs were Sophia and Christ. The Aeons together made up the Pleroma, or fullness, of God, and thus
should not be seen as distinct from the divine, but
symbolic abstractions of the divine nature.
A number of 19th century thinkers such as William Blake, Arthur Schopenhauer,Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even
figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced. Jules Doinel "re- established" a Gnostic church in France in 1890
which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and which, although small, is still active today. Early 20th century thinkers who heavily studied
and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderatedly influenced. Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909
(before moving to a more "Perennialist" position). Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought. The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 had a huge impact on Gnosticism since World War II. Thinkers who were heavily
influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced. A number of ecclesiastical bodies which think of themselves as
Gnostic have been set up or re-founded since
World War II as well, including the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica, the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johannite Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American
College of Gnostic Bishops. Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy.
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